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The second chapter of the present study constitutes the literature review. A literature review examines the available and relevant research associated with the area of research (Luft, 2022). It consists of the theoretical review, which aids in demystifying the interplay between the variables in a study. Further, the chapter undergoes the review of empirical literature in line with the aims and objectives of the study. The chapter presents an overview of the research gaps identified from the literature examined.
As per Vinz (2023), a theoretical review or a theoretical framework is the foundational review in research that consists of prevailing theories that serve as a blueprint or a roadmap toward developing the arguments used to substantiate the study. It justifies and contextualises the research, which is a crucial part of a study (Adom et al., 2015). It is vital that all aspects of the research are linked with the theoretical framework to make it comprehensive. It is crucial to choose an appropriate theoretical framework that convinces both researchers and readers that the research is not based on a personal bias but rather is established in a deeply rooted theory.
As per the study conducted by Disch & Hawkesworth (2016), the feminist theory underlines the existence of a gendered social structure. The Feminist theory originates from accord with feminist activism alongwith academic practices that seek to highlight the barriers and constraints that surround the lives of the women, explain their dynamics, and finally identify mechanisms for change. Feminist theory not only focuses on gender based power and oppression to recognize how the experiences of women are different from those of men but it also explores how systems of power and oppression interact. It provides an analytical framework, while at the same time making way for political practice. This battle against inequality and oppression demands a commitment to political consciousness, activism and affirmative actions towards achieving gender equality in terms of political representation of women in Kenya (Fattal,2019).
The concept of affirmative actions derives its origin from the USA with an aim to prevent discrimination against a specific group of people. It is a set of policies that are formulated to encourage the inclusion of all people including men and women by addressing and acknowledging the concerns about discrimination in any form. Many arguments against affirmative action suggest that it is a “reverse discrimination” that enforces barriers between people rather than eliminating them. Gender in the context of equality refers to realising the relevance of the roles of both men and women. It further aims to eliminate the stereotypes and prejudices that enable both these genders to be able to contribute to any social, cultural and political development within the society equally. It broadly deals with the relationship between males and females and the differences and similarities between them (Abhra, 2017).
Affirmative actions concerning minorities in society drives that include reserved seats or standards for ladies, played a significant impact in upgrading' political portrayal of women in Kenya. These actions have expanded the number of ladies in administrative bodies, consequently enhancing their voices and viewpoints in the policy-making process (Smith and Johnson, 2018; Oduor and Wangari, 2020). Studies demonstrate that governmental policy regarding minorities in society arrangements have added to limiting the orientation hole in political positions of authority, cultivating ladies' strengthening, and empowering the plan of more oriented delicate strategies (Brown et al., 2017; Kimani and Ng'ethe, 2019).
Gender parity, as explained by Swenson (2017), in their research means a statistical measure that compares a specific indicator among women, for instance, average income, to the same indicator among men. In their research, it was found that gender parity is often confused with sex ratio. However, the two concepts differ from each other in this context. As suggested by the United Nations Women (2023), the participation of women in politics and public matters is crucial in furtherance of achieving the Sustainable Development Goals by the year 2023. Nevertheless, data shows that women are still underrepresented at varied levels of decision-making across the globe. This implies that attaining gender parity is. As per the United Nations (n.d.), the Strategy on Gender Parity sets targets. They aim to monitor senior management, leadership and accountability, recruitment and retention and mission settings while seeking a balance between individual accountability and incentives and recognising the challenges along the way. The strategy is aimed at fostering a gender-neutral and inclusive workplace for people. It is further based on the goal of improving geographical diversity, especially for underrepresented groups.
The struggle for Affirmative Action in Kenya can be traced back to 1990 however, it became prominent only in 1996 when a motion for Beijing Platform for Action that provided for affirmative action, for implementation by Parliament moved by Hon. Charity Ngilu was not passed. These struggles continued for three years after which Affirmative Action measures were included in the Draft of the Constitution in the year 2005 (Nzomo, 2014).
On account of the slow pace at which the number of women in politics is increasing, a wide range of policy measures have been introduced. This is being done to reach gender parity in political institutions. One amongst such mechanisms is quotas to increase and protect the presence of women in parliaments (Dahlerup, 2005). Aseidu (2018) has explained that gender quotas demand that women must constitute a certain percentage of the members of a governing body including a government, a political party or a parliamentary assembly. He further makes a distinction between candidate quotas and reserved seats that constitute the two types of electoral gender quotas. Candidate quotas set a minimum threshold for women candidates either legally or voluntarily , whereas, reservation seats set aside a specific number of seats normally specified in the legislation.
There is a significant hindrance concerning the formula to be used to achieve the two-thirds gender rule in Kenya as pointed out by Bauer and Brnet (2013). One of the proposals that have been presented to overcome this challenge was that political parties must nominate women to fill in the positions and to make sure that they insist and regulate only women to be elected in various strongholds to achieve the gender threshold. The National Gender and Equality Commission endorsed the nomination of women. In furtherance of this they have recommended that the provisions of Article 177 applicable to the County Assemblies must be extended to the National Assembly.
Kenyatta (2023), in their research, examines the status quo of the Kenyan political landscape by assessing various factors that influence it, alongside the hindrances to the inclusion of women in politics. They present a wide range of structural and functional factors significant in shaping the decision of women to participate in politics. They have also considered financial capacity as a hurdle in seeking political office. In the end, it was found that many factors, like the presence of patriarchy in Kenya, societal norms, financial capabilities and the increasing cost of campaigns, make it difficult for women to achieve gender parity.
Amongst these barriers, Shvedova (2005), outlined three significant barriers to female political engagement in their research. These barriers are political, socioeconomic, ideological, and psychological in nature. Political impediments stem from the implementation lag of the right to vote and the right to run for office, which is now enshrined in most countries' laws and national policies. The ability to vote ensures women's candidature, which is the first step towards boosting women's representation. Increased female candidature allows women to exercise their right to vote since women are more likely to vote for women.
Additionally, the recent election in Kenya noticed an increase in the percentage of women participating in politics from 24 per cent to 29 percent. This was revealed in the research conducted by Nzau (2022); however, they further found that without any substantial action to curb the hindrances, the movement for equality is insignificant. The key factors that act as barriers to achieving gender parity in Kenya include limited access to education and lack of information, negative stereotypes, financial dependency and cultural attitudes, along with sociological factors such as the burden of domestic responsibility, intimidation, harassment and violence.
In research conducted by Hale (2018) for the Commonwealth, the Commonwealth Secretariat, upon noticing a gap in the existing research, formulated their research to gain an insight into the role of parties in facilitating or constraining women’s access to political positions while considering six African countries namely, Ghana, Kenya, Namibia, Seychelles, Sierra Leone and Tanzania. The study showed that even though Ghana was ahead of Sierra Leone in the Inter-Parliamentary Union, the number of women in parliament has been decreasing since the elections in 2002. On the other hand, Namibia and Tanzania were performing high on the ranking.
Rwanda remains as a quintessential case of successful gender parity in political representation of women. This has been backed by the study conducted by Garcia and Martinez (2015). More than 60% of parliamentary seats are held by women in the country. This is a result of the country's adoption of a quota framework by holding seats for women in both the houses of Parliament (UN Women, 2018). This highlights the extraordinary capability of the system of quotas in rapidly accomplishing gender-balanced representation. In addition to this, Lindberg (2017) suggests that Nordic nations such as Sweden, Norway, and Finland, offer comprehensive models of orientation balance. Their success exudes from their multifaceted strategies like gender mainstreaming, strong parental leave policies, and flexible work arrangements. These actions develop an environment that works in the favour of women, thereby, acknowledging and presenting the significance of a comprehensive way to deal with encouraging political contribution of women.
The adoption of gender equality provisions in the Constitution of South Africa has encouraged the adoption of a 50% gender quota by the African National Congress (ANC) for candidate lists (Clayton, 2021). This approach underlines the role of the legislative framework and political parties' responsibility in maintaining gender parity. Bolivia’s experience further highlights the relevance of legislative actions that induce equal political participation. In a research conducted by Oduor and Wangari (2020), Bolivia serves as a substantive case with its constitutional provisions with respect to gender parity in political candidacy. This requirement has resulted in a significant rise in the political representation of women in the country (Oduor and Wangari, 2020).
According to a report released by the International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance (2022), Spain highlights the adequacy of gender quotas in political parties. The country's need for a balanced political representation among men and women on candidate lists has induced an increased number of women in the Parliament of Spain. This practice underlines the role of internal strategies in forming gender parity in political representation. Another study conducted by Kimani and Ng’ethe (2019) suggests that Bangladesh, held seats for women in local governance. This has resulted in their active participation in the decision making processes.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The present chapter provides an outline and justification for the research approach that is used in this study. According to Chris (2021), research methodology is the section of a study that describes how the research was conducted and executed. The Primary objective of the research methodology is to make the study reliable and authentic. Thus, the research methodology in any study is an essential component of the framework of the study. This chapter gives details about the study's research philosophy, design, sampling, data collection methods, data analysis, research limitations and ethical considerations. There are primarily two types of methodology, namely qualitative methodology and quantitative methodology (Brannen, 2005). This paper has used qualitative methodology by collecting data from various primary and secondary sources. In furtherance of conducting the study, a wide range of sources of literature have been reviewed and interviews conducted.
Research Approach refers to the systematic and structured methods of conducting research (Hassan, 2023). It can be categorised into two heads namely, deductive or top to bottom and inductive or bottom to top. In an inductive approach, the data is coded without trying to fit the theme into the already existing code or the conceptions of the research on the subject matter. On the contrary, a deductive method of analysis allows the researcher to analyse the data with respect to the theoretical interest in the issues being investigated in their study (Brown & Clark, 2006). This study has utilised the inductive approach to break down the subjective information. Topical examination is perfect as it permits the recognizable proof of subjects or examples in the subjective review. The study has collected and analysed data from a wide range of primary and secondary sources like interviews, review of journal articles, reports from international organisations and so on and has formed relevant hypotheses about the political representation of women in Kenya, on the basis of the interpretation and analysis of the data obtained.
Formulating a research design is a process through which data-gathering efforts are structured and defined. Overall, it is a strategy that researchers select to integrate the different elements and components of the study in a comprehensive manner. Eriksson and Kovalainen (2015), in their study, mentioned that this includes the variables to be included in the study, how they are measured in relation to one another and how data is collected. In the present research, an exploratory research design is employed. Exploratory research design is the preliminary investigation on a new issue of which the research has minimal knowledge. It is ill structured and considerably less centred around predetermined targets. It generally appears as a pilot study (Swaraj, 2019).
The present study has utilised the exploratory research design to venture into the many aspects of the political representation of women in Kenya, especially focussing on the implementation and challenges of the Two-Thirds Gender Rule. For this purpose, observations and interviews have been conducted to collect first hand data from the interviewees to gain a better understanding of the political representation of women in Kenya.
Data collection methods allow the researcher to collect information systematically associated with the aims and objectives of the study. There are various ways by which data can be collected. These include primary and secondary sources. In pursuance of this, there can be utilisation of available literary resources for research in similar areas of research, observation, interviews, questionnaires and so on. The study has extracted data from both primary and secondary sources (Cheleunvong, 2019).
The present study has made use of qualitative data for solving the identifying research problem. Primary data has been obtained via an interview guide. The interview guide contained unstructured questions, which encouraged the interviewees to give in-depth responses without feeling held back from revealing any information. With the use of unstructured questions, the responses from the interviewees gave an insight into their feelings, background, hidden motivations, interests and decisions and gave relevant information significant to the research.
Furthermore, secondary data has been reviewed and used to corroborate the findings from the primary sources. Documentary materials have been reviewed to provide background information for the study. The data has been obtained from government records, media records, non-governmental organisations' records, and data from publications related to the area of study.
In research methodology, sampling is a concept that involves selecting a group of individuals, items or data from a population in order to conduct a study and draw conclusions about the population with respect to the objective of the study. It is an integral step in the process of conducting a research as it allows the researcher to make inferences with respect to a larger group on the basis of their characteristics and behaviour (Mesa et al., 2013). There are two broad categories of sampling techniques, namely, probability sampling and non probability sampling. In the probability sampling technique, the individuals have an equal opportunity for inclusion in the sample. One of the most significant advantages of probability sampling is that it reduces biasness from the study. On the contrary, non probability sampling is related to studies in which the sample size is small and there is no need to make statistical inferences (Taherdoost, 2016).
Purposive Sampling is a group of non-probability sampling techniques wherein units are selected they possess characteristics required in the sample for research. In simpler words, they are selected for a “purpose” (Nikolopoulou, 2023). In the present study, the use of purposive sampling was made by grouping respondents into three groups. These groups included male and female politicians who offered their practical insights on their political journeys and impediments; discussions with political commentators; analysts who closely monitor the electoral and political dynamics; and civil society players who are engaged in the civic and governance space in Kenya.
As shown in studies, data analysis can be explained as the process of applying statistical and logical methods to describe, depict, summarise and evaluate the data collected for the research in a systematic manner (Guest, Namey & Chen, 2020). Dawadi (2020) suggests that in qualitative research, thematic analysis is a method used by the researchers wherein they systematically organise and analyse complex data sets. It further involves identification of themes by careful reading.
In the present research, a thematic data analysis approach is used to analyse the qualitative data. The objective is to address the research issues with the identification of themes. Finally, the researcher has developed themes on the basis of the interview conducted and has further undertaken a thematic analysis of the responses from the interview conducted in this study.
As per the study conducted by Price and Murnan (2004), a research limitation in a study is the systematic bias that the researcher or the author could not discover, and that might affect the results of the study. While conducting research, a researcher may encounter various issues which cause limitations in the process of data collection, analysation and interpretation. In the current study, the limitation lies within the limited sampling size to conduct the research. It does not cover a broader ambit and other related aspects to political representation of women in Kenya to provide the researcher with accurate results. Another significant limitation faced by the researcher was the non availability of the participants.
The protection of human subjects by applying proper moral standards is crucial while conducting research. In qualitative research, ethical considerations have a specific reverberation due to the in-depth nature of the review and research process. The present ethical consideration guidance to undertake qualitative research often provides researchers with general rules rather than emphasising on how to apply them, particularly while interviewing a vulnerable group (Arifin, 2018).
While conducting the interviews of the respondents, proper conduct was followed. Each one of the respondents were pre-informed about the interview ahead of time. The researcher made the respondents aware of the aims for the exploration and the objectives of the interview to the respondents. In addition to this, the privacy and confidentiality of the individual data of the respondents was maintained throughout the process of data collection. Furthermore, no unethical or illegal means of acquiring the data were used to collect the data. The data has been derived explicitly from legal and authentic sources. The sources of literature used in the review were gathered from the college library and just authentic sources were relied on for the review. Proper referencing and citation has been done wherever relevant and required information has been used by other studies.
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